J. Microbiol. (2016). 6:e1000833. doi: 10.1002/biot.200900279, Nishat, S., and Andreana, P. R. (2016). 363:fnw134. Nanostructured bacterial materials for innovative medicines. These biosensors showed high specificity for the detection of heavy metals (Kim K. R. et al., 2016). HPV prophylactic vaccines and the potential prevention of noncervical cancers in both men and women. Related Journals of Microbial Genetics (2015). Through these various global approaches, scientists continue to collect, compile, and analyze large amounts of genetic information. Biocontrol. Food Hydrocoll. Robinson, D., and Medlock, N. (2005). Med. J. Usually, microbial enzymes catalyse the reactions of hydrolysis, oxidation, or reduction. Other approved therapeutic monoclonal antibodies, in Safety of Biologics Therapy (New York City, NY: Springer International Publishing), 141215. Nat. Crit. Regulation of plants phosphate uptake in common mycorrhizal networks: role of intraradical fungal phosphate transporters. Macromol. Indian J. Exp. B. Goldberg, and A. Filloux (Dordrecht: Springer), 289314. Proc. Toxic metabolites are also produced by Myrothecium verrucaria when grown in bioreactors, and when in contact with adult nematodes, the metabolites in suspension kill the adults, in addition to inhibiting egg development and hatching (Twomey et al., 2000). 5, 396. doi: 10.12688/f1000research.7432.1, Cook, P. E., McMeniman, C. J., and ONeill, S. L. (2008). If you wanted to study how two different cells in the body respond to an infection, what omics field would you apply? Intell. 14, 288304. Several fungi pathogenic of insects are also being used as control agents, including Beauveria, Metarhizium, and Paecilomyces. They can also enhance the aroma of beverages and the quality of margarine and mayonnaise (Sharma et al., 2001). Even though the vaccine does not contain the hepatitis B virus, the presence of the antigenic protein stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies that will protect the patient against the virus in the event of exposure.4 5. (2006). A Suggested nomenclature for bacterial host modification and restriction systems and their enzymes. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1153447, Oliveira, R. S., Rocha, I., Ma, Y., Vostka, M., and Freitas, H. (2016b). Arrows of the same color inside the bacterium signal the same pathway. doi: 10.1007/s11947-016-1744-1748, Cano-Garrido, O., Cspedes, M. V., Unzueta, U., Saccardo, P., Roldn, M., Snchez-Chardi, A., et al. 70, 41404145. 10, 346358. These products are food additives, beverages (alcoholic and non-alcoholic), organic acids, enzymes, vitamins, biofuels, bio-fertilizers, metabolites, different types of antibiotics, vaccines in the medical field for the treatment of diseases. doi: 10.1016/S0032-9592(02)00332-1, Saravanakumar, K., Yu, C., Dou, K., Wang, M., Li, Y., and Chen, J. Total and functional antibody response to a quadrivalent meningococcal polysaccharide vaccine among children. doi: 10.1128/AEM.03114-15, Marasco, W. A., and Sui, J. Res. Selection of -lyase-producing yeasts improves aromatic thiol release and, consequently, the sensory properties of wines (Belda et al., 2016), whereas the selection of yeasts specializing in certain processes such as flocculation may improve the fermentation of special wines such as sparkling wines (Tofalo et al., 2016). doi: 10.3934/microbial.2016.1.42, Wadt, N. S. Y., Okamoto, M. K. H., Bach, E. M., and Bach, E. E. (2015). The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Genetic system constructed to overproduce and secrete proinsulin in Bacillus subtilis. Several sequences are present in all bacteria with slight variation, can be used in the identification of different bacteria. Goswami, R., Chattopadhyay, P., Shome, A., Banerjee, S. N., Chakraborty, A. K., Mathew, A. K., et al. 23, 353361. doi: 10.1146/annurev.bi.33.070164.001315, Andersen, B., Poulsen, R., and Hansen, G. H. (2016). doi: 10.1002/bbb.1651, McMeniman, C. J., Lane, R. V., Cass, B. N., Fong, A. W. C., Sidhu, M., Wang, Y.-F., et al. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0128008, Chouari, R., Le, P. D., Daegelen, P., Ginestet, P., Weissenbach, J., and Sghir, A. J. Appl. Traditional Indian fermented foods: a rich source of lactic acid bacteria. Sustain. Bioplastics also have the potential to lead to the rise, within civil construction, of materials that have low incorporated energy, contributing to energy efficiency (Ivanov and Stabnikov, 2016). Annu. Effects of pellet characteristics on L-lactic acid fermentation by R. oryzae: pellet morphology, diameter, density, and interior structure. doi: 10.1080/1065657X.2002.10702075, Tofalo, R., Perpetuini, G., Di Gianvito, P., Arfelli, G., Schirone, M., Corsetti, A., et al. Biol. These data can be used in studies of microbial diversity, group phylogeny, species diversification, and microbial metabolism. Sarwar, M. (2015a). Another up-and-coming clinical application of genomics and transcriptomics is pharmacogenomics, also called toxicogenomics, which involves evaluating the effectiveness and safety of drugs on the basis of information from an individual's genomic sequence. Because they require original research and development, and because they propose alternative methods of administration such as dermatological applications and inhaled formulations in order to minimize biological instability, biobetters still have significantly higher costs compared to reference biopharmaceutical versions (Mitragotri et al., 2014; Sandeep et al., 2016). Alginate: properties and biomedical applications. doi: 10.1081/AL-200065793, Reed, S. G., Bertholet, S., Coler, R. N., and Friede, M. (2009). Gao, C., Ma, C., and Xu, P. (2011). Mater. Trends Genet. Stem cell and organ cloning 7. Polym. Microbiol. 363, fnw001. doi: 10.1016/j.cropro.2016.05.009, Carroll, A. L., Desai, S. H., and Atsumi, S. (2016). When the media commented on the success of the human genome . Biodeter. Its properties have broadened its use in the encapsulation or controlled release of drugs, enzymes, or cells, or as a matrix for tissue engineering (Andersen et al., 2012; Lee and Mooney, 2012), similarly to chitosan. The LibreTexts libraries arePowered by NICE CXone Expertand are supported by the Department of Education Open Textbook Pilot Project, the UC Davis Office of the Provost, the UC Davis Library, the California State University Affordable Learning Solutions Program, and Merlot. 12, 1819. Microbial products can be broadly categorized into: (1) metabolic production; (2) biotransformation; (3) production of biofuels; (4) treatment of organic and industrial wastes; (5) recovery of metals; (6) production of microbial biomass (microbial protein or single cell protein) for food and feed; (7) production of biocontrol agents; and (8) doi: 10.1002/elsc.201500116. Science, government and the mass production of penicillin. Because of simplicity in physiology microbes have been exploited for. The development of that technique, as well as the enhancement of molecular cloning techniques using plasmids as vectors, expanded the possibilities of microorganism manipulation (Simon and Chopin, 1988; Olsen, 2016) and the large-scale production of microbial products, including those from modified microorganisms. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-54596-2-1193. Bior. doi: 10.1007/978-0-387-78225-6-11, Courtois, F., Agrawal, N. J., Lauer, T. M., and Trout, B. L. (2016). Keywords: Microbial proteases; biological characteristics; industrial applications; protease engineering; purification strategies; sources. Benef. (2015). Res. (2012). Vaccine 15, 785787. This emerging field of bioinformatics can be used, among many other applications, for clues to treating diseases and understanding the workings of cells. These are just a few of the numerous applications of microbial genetics that we will explore in this chapter. Pharm. Technol. doi: 10.5935/0100-4042.20150094, Pires, A. L. R., and Moraes, A. M. (2015). Reverse genetics uses the opposite approach, starting with a specific DNA sequence and attempting to determine what phenotype it produces. Applications in Therapy1. Direct mechanisms include mainly biofertilization, with nitrogen synthesis by strains belonging to the genera Rhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, Azorhizobium, and Allorhizobium, and the stimulation of root growth through the synthesis of auxins, cytokinins, and gibberellins. Many factors determine the microbial community present during composting, but under aerobic conditions, temperature is the main factor determining not only the microbial types but also the species diversity and metabolic rate (Hassen et al., 2001). Crop Prot. Bioplastic formulations were recently tested for seed coating of agronomic species. Cell Fact. Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya. Proteomics may be used to study which proteins are expressed under various conditions within a single cell type or to compare protein expression patterns between different organisms. Towards an integrated mycorrhizal technology: harnessing mycorrhiza for sustainable intensification in agriculture. Microbiol. doi: 10.1016/j.bios.2010.09.005, Suksong, W., Kongjan, P., Prasertsan, P., Imai, T., and O-Thong, S. (2016). Rational design of therapeutic mAbs against aggregation through protein engineering and incorporation of glycosylation motifs applied to bevacizumab. However, these properties, as well as the monomeric composition, can be altered according to the microbial origin of the bioplastic, and the main interest in these polymers lies in their biodegradability and biocompatibility (Luengo et al., 2003). Protein secretion in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Available at: http://www.who.int/immunization/sage/meetings/2014/april [accessed June 1, 2014]. Indian J. Chem. Biopesticides: an effective and environmental friendly insect-pests inhibitor line of action. doi: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2006.08.001, Tiquia, S. M., Wan, H. C., and Tam, N. F. Y. For instance, microbes can be used . Health 79, 320328. Homogeneity and heterogeneity in amylase production by Bacillus subtilis under different growth conditions. AIMS Microbiol. doi: 10.1002/chir.20494. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1439-2054(20000301)276:1, Mohiddin, A., Lasim, A. M., and Zuharah, W. F. (2016). These include vaccines against Salmonella typhi and Neisseria meningitides (Keitel et al., 1994; King et al., 1996). doi: 10.1016/S0141-0229(99)00155-6. Effect of culture conditions on the whole cell activity of recombinant Escherichia coli expressing periplasmic organophosphorus hydrolase and cytosolic GroEL/ES chaperone. Probiotics are living microorganisms that have been linked to host health benefits (Gawkowski and Chikindas, 2016). Amperometric detection of Cu2+ by yeast biosensors using flow injection analysis (FIA). Traditional covalent linkages between carbohydrates and carrier proteins have been used to increase immune responses to polysaccharide antigens (Nishat and Andreana, 2016), thereby obtaining conjugate vaccines. (1973). Future challenges such as finding new ways to combat disease, reduce pollution and feed the world's population. Microbial characterization during composting of municipal solid waste. Food Eng. The American economic expansion brought on by the end of World War II and known as the Golden Age of Capitalism (Stephen et al., 1991), as well as the knowledge of microbial genetics that was emerging at that time (e.g., Zinder and Lederberg, 1952; Jacob et al., 1960; Ames and Martin, 1964; Holloway, 1969; Sussman, 1970; Bagdasarian and Timmis, 1982), stimulated the emergence of microorganism-based industrial processes, triggering modern Technological Microbiology. However, the future popularization of protein engineering techniques, especially site-directed mutagenesis (SDM), which allows the substitution, elimination or insertion of one or more amino acids in the sequence of a protein, is expected to enable the availability of less expensive biobetters, which are the main growing class of biopharmaceuticals (Courtois et al., 2016; Jozala et al., 2016). Biotechnol. Quart. Technol. Omemu, A. M., Akpan, I., Bankole, M. O., and Teniola, O. D. (2005). LB participated in writing and critically reviewed all content. 39, 235251. Res. As an example, the thermal cycler in Figure 8.1 is used to perform a diagnostic technique called the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which relies on DNA polymerase enzymes from thermophilic bacteria. Further, some natural colorants have commercial potential for use as antioxidants. Obviously, the success of the use of microbial nanoparticles in nanotechnology and nanomedicine depends on the identification of new species of microorganisms and on the knowledge of the microbial interactions that occur in natural environments that can lead to the discovery of new molecules (Bajaj et al., 2012; Avendao et al., 2016; Borghese et al., 2016). Biol. These devices include dialysis membranes and scaffolds for tissue engineering (Svensson et al., 2005). Annu. Natl Acad. 61, 631641. Genetic engineering has been used to modify the properties of yeast and natural yeast, improving their performance in the fermentation process. 89, 123128. Environ. Cytoplasmic incompatibility causes females with Wolbachia to always breed offspring with Wolbachia, whether mating with males with or without the bacterium. doi: 10.1007/s00216-007-1211-5, Keitel, W. A., Bond, N. L., Zahradnik, J. M., Cramton, T. A., and Robbins, J. Another alternative, also focused on preventing the proliferation of the dengue virus vector, is the use of a biological insecticide. Production of recombinant proteins by microbes and higher organisms. Appl. A potential application of genetic engineering for dairy industry is in the generation of enhanced starter cultures for yoghurt and cheese manufacture. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Cell Fact. Water Res. CPR bacteria have small genomes and unusual ribosomal compositions, in addition to lacking numerous biosynthetic pathways (Brown et al., 2015), whereas DPANN has been defined as a function of the metabolic capacity (Rinke et al., 2013; Castelle et al., 2015). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-29573-2_13, Khor, E., and Lim, L. Y. Front. Sequencing the entire microbial genome is important for construction of accurate reference genomes, microbial identification, and other comparative genomic studies . Opin. J. Mol. 35, 1721. Eng. Another aspect of environmental technological microbiology is advances in the knowledge and use of the symbiotic relationship between plants and mycorrhizal fungi as a strategy to increase plant biomass or increase the yields of products of agricultural or pharmacological interest (e.g., Boyer et al., 2016; Gabriele et al., 2016; Khl et al., 2016). This evidence leads us to believe that the technological process used by these civilizations allowed the large-scale production of wine starting around 5000 BC (Borneman et al., 2013). Development of a highly specific and sensitive cadmium and lead microbial biosensor using synthetic CadC-T7 genetic circuitry. Acta 568, 200210. Microorganisms have also been potentially explored for the production of a new generation of biofuels (Liao et al., 2016). Actuators B. Genetics 184, 917. doi: 10.1073/pnas.90.24.11478, Gabriele, M., Gerardi, C., Longo, V., Lucejko, J., Degano, I., Pucci, L., et al. They are crucial for the production of a variety of metabolites, such as ethanol, butanol, lactic acid and riboflavin, as well as the transformation of chemicals that help to reduce environmental pollution. Vaccin. For miRNA, only one of the two strands binds to RISC. (1952). This page titled 12: Modern Applications of Microbial Genetics is shared under a CC BY 4.0 license and was authored, remixed, and/or curated by OpenStax via source content that was edited to the style and standards of the LibreTexts platform; a detailed edit history is available upon request. Wolbachia infection reduces blood-feeding success in the dengue fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier, 399434. Biobetters: the better biologics and their regulatory overview. 151, 684691. Appl. doi: 10.1080/15287394.2016.1153448, Olmos-Soto, J., and Contreras-Flores, R. (2003). ( Keitel et al., 2016 ), density, and Tam, N. Y., oxidation, or reduction mating with males with or without the.... 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